As per the description under the title, this blog is a culmination project for a class I took this summer; this online class discussed and explored the topic of the Holocaust through the study of various disciplines and approaches. The entries on this blog are meant to communicate the information in the associated Popplet in a different way. The tab which reads "The Holocaust: Reason and Emotion" near the top left of the blog home page is a link to a Popplet mind map which also discusses the same information discussed in this blog. In addition the blog entries also contain the bibliographic information for the sources used for various topics. A third component of this blog is a list of links at the bottom to online articles (all published within the past year) which address conflicts which still arise over such topics as art looted by the Nazis and also the continuing hunt for Nazi war criminals. The aim of this blog is to provide information regarding various approaches to the study of the Holocaust in the 21st century.
Here is URL for the Popplet:
http://popplet.com/app/index.php#/1133342
Tuesday, July 23, 2013
Monday, July 22, 2013
Emotional Approaches to Holocaust Remembrance: Memoirs and Art
When approaching a topic from a legal standpoint, one is supposed to dismiss emotions and make decisions based on reason; this holds true when attempting to create an understanding of the Holocaust based on legal issues. However when considering the Holocaust from the mediums of memoirs and art, emotion is key.
Memoirs are written accounts penned by people seeking to share their thoughts and experiences with the world. Agate Nesaule, who survived the horrors of World War II as brought on by the Soviets, wrote her memoir as a way to deal with her guilt and also confront her experiences. Her memoir A Woman in Amber traces her time spent in Europe during and after the war, and also the life she had in the United States after moving there at the age of 12. Agate used the writing of her memoir as a means of healing; it is fused with emotion and inner conflict, reflecting her lifelong struggle to understand what she and millions of others experienced during World War II (and the Holocaust). The Diary of Anne Frank, was never meant to be a memoir, but rather was a means of expression for Anne Frank, a Jewish teenager hiding out in Amsterdam. Otto Frank, Anne's Father, published the diary posthumously in order to allow his daughter's spirit and love of life to live on. This type of memoir is filled with everyday banter, and also serves as a means of coping, but not in the same way as Agate's does; after all Anne Frank never got to reflect on the horror of camp life, she perished in one shortly before the end of the war.
While memoirs are emotion filled, they are bound in some ways by the conventions of the written word such as sentence structure and grammar rules; expressions of emotions in art forms such as paintings and poetry are not however. Paul Celan is a survivor of the Holocaust and his poetry, like the memoirs discussed above, reflect his attempts to address the wrongs done to him. His most famous poem "Death Fugue" uses the characters of Margarete and Shulamite to embody a German woman and a Jewish woman respectively. Through his extensive use of metaphors, Celan conveys such dark emotions as fear and despair, referring often to the image of death. Anselm Kiefer is a German artist who in many of his paintings, creates visual representations of Celan's poetry.The raw emotions of Celan's poetry are made visible through the use of dull colors punctuated often by the image of straw. Kiefer often incorporates the image of straw in order to reference the "golden hair" of Margarete, a character who represents the ideal German woman. Both these mediums are able to portray human emotions in such ways that convey depth and an inability to be tamed.
Sources:
"Anne Frank the Writer: An Unfinished Story." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Web. 22 July 2013.
Nesaule, Agate. A Woman in Amber. New York: Soho Press, Inc., 1995. Print.
"Paul Celan." POETS.org. Academy of American Poets, 2013. Web. 22 July 2013.
Wischer, Stephen Alexander. "Incarnations of Paul Celan’s Todesfuge in the Paintings of Anselm Kiefer and Daniel Libeskind’s Jewish Museum, Berlin." Architectoni.ca, 2012. Web. 22 July 2013.
Memoirs are written accounts penned by people seeking to share their thoughts and experiences with the world. Agate Nesaule, who survived the horrors of World War II as brought on by the Soviets, wrote her memoir as a way to deal with her guilt and also confront her experiences. Her memoir A Woman in Amber traces her time spent in Europe during and after the war, and also the life she had in the United States after moving there at the age of 12. Agate used the writing of her memoir as a means of healing; it is fused with emotion and inner conflict, reflecting her lifelong struggle to understand what she and millions of others experienced during World War II (and the Holocaust). The Diary of Anne Frank, was never meant to be a memoir, but rather was a means of expression for Anne Frank, a Jewish teenager hiding out in Amsterdam. Otto Frank, Anne's Father, published the diary posthumously in order to allow his daughter's spirit and love of life to live on. This type of memoir is filled with everyday banter, and also serves as a means of coping, but not in the same way as Agate's does; after all Anne Frank never got to reflect on the horror of camp life, she perished in one shortly before the end of the war.
While memoirs are emotion filled, they are bound in some ways by the conventions of the written word such as sentence structure and grammar rules; expressions of emotions in art forms such as paintings and poetry are not however. Paul Celan is a survivor of the Holocaust and his poetry, like the memoirs discussed above, reflect his attempts to address the wrongs done to him. His most famous poem "Death Fugue" uses the characters of Margarete and Shulamite to embody a German woman and a Jewish woman respectively. Through his extensive use of metaphors, Celan conveys such dark emotions as fear and despair, referring often to the image of death. Anselm Kiefer is a German artist who in many of his paintings, creates visual representations of Celan's poetry.The raw emotions of Celan's poetry are made visible through the use of dull colors punctuated often by the image of straw. Kiefer often incorporates the image of straw in order to reference the "golden hair" of Margarete, a character who represents the ideal German woman. Both these mediums are able to portray human emotions in such ways that convey depth and an inability to be tamed.
Sources:
"Anne Frank the Writer: An Unfinished Story." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Web. 22 July 2013.
Nesaule, Agate. A Woman in Amber. New York: Soho Press, Inc., 1995. Print.
"Paul Celan." POETS.org. Academy of American Poets, 2013. Web. 22 July 2013.
Wischer, Stephen Alexander. "Incarnations of Paul Celan’s Todesfuge in the Paintings of Anselm Kiefer and Daniel Libeskind’s Jewish Museum, Berlin." Architectoni.ca, 2012. Web. 22 July 2013.
Nazi Criminals, Holocaust Era Stolen Art and Memorials
Art Stolen by the Nazis
During the era of the Third Reich, the Nazis looted goods and many priceless works of art from their victims. Although we are sixty years removed from the downfall of the Nazis, the issue of stolen art is still being discussed today. Much of the controversy surrounding art stolen by the Nazis develops when a museum is attempting to sell or buy a piece of art whose provenance is in question. Museums were not always as conscientious of the ways in which they acquired objects as they are today; it was only much more recently that museums began to require records of ownership. There are individuals and families today who continue to seek the return of art looted by the Nazis, however museums have been known to challenge claims by said people, staking their own claims of ownership by referencing decades of care. (See NY Times online article listed at the bottom of this blog which discusses one family's pursuit of its stolen art.)
During the era of the Third Reich, the Nazis looted goods and many priceless works of art from their victims. Although we are sixty years removed from the downfall of the Nazis, the issue of stolen art is still being discussed today. Much of the controversy surrounding art stolen by the Nazis develops when a museum is attempting to sell or buy a piece of art whose provenance is in question. Museums were not always as conscientious of the ways in which they acquired objects as they are today; it was only much more recently that museums began to require records of ownership. There are individuals and families today who continue to seek the return of art looted by the Nazis, however museums have been known to challenge claims by said people, staking their own claims of ownership by referencing decades of care. (See NY Times online article listed at the bottom of this blog which discusses one family's pursuit of its stolen art.)
Nazi War Criminals
Much was made of hunting down Nazi war criminals in the decades immediately following the end of World War II; unfortunately not all Nazi criminals were tried and convicted of their crimes at Nuremberg. Many Nazis escaped to places located in South America where they lived in exile until they dies or were caught. Simon Wiesenthal, a Jewish survivor of the Holocaust, became (in addition to an author and researcher) a Nazi hunter; perhaps the most famous Nazi criminal Wiesenthal was able to track down was Adolf Eichman, an administrator of the "Final Solution". Although said criminals would be well into their old ale now, one still sees the occasional article discussing the discovery of a Nazi war criminal. (See articles listed at the bottom of this blog.)
Source:
"Nazi Hunting: Simon Wiesenthal." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 10 June 2013. Web. 22 July 2013.
"The Search for Perpetrators." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 10 June 2013. Web. 22 July 2013.
Memorials/ Monuments*
Memorials/ Monuments*
Professor James Young is supportive of the new-age memorials termed “counter-monuments”. Counter-monuments by definition and practice are often abstract and are controversial in nature; counter-monuments challenge the visitor to become the memorial itself by provoking thought and reflection. Young, like many younger generations of German artists who also support the counter-monument movement, believes that the greatest way to honor the victims of the Holocaust and to ensure that such events are never repeated, is to imprint the memory of remembrance on peoples’ minds. Counter-monuments frequently create controversy, and because controversy almost guarantees that the public will take note of the story, Young and others who think like him, see the incitement of the public through new and often contentious means as the only way to create successful memorials. In response to one such counter-monument installed in Hamburg, one reporter wrote that it was the “fingerprint of the conscience of Germany” which was reflected in the response that many had to the “disappearing” memorial, in essence the memorial was successful because it caused the public to examine its feelings regarding German participation in the Holocaust.
The idea of the preservation of such concentration camps as Auschwitz, is not one which is entirely supported by Young. Professor Young believes that it is impossible to accurately convey to the visitor what life was like at the camps by maintaining the buildings and preserving the layouts. He notes that it is important to mark the passage of time, by perhaps allowing weeds to grow up, while at the same time performing enough maintenance on the buildings to make sure that they will continue to stand. His is idea behind such thinking is to show that while the past is ever present, Germany has made attempts to move on and no longer wishes to be identified solely by its actions during the Holocaust. Auschwitz because it has been preserved almost in its entirety, does not elicit a response simply because of its appearance, but rather because most visitors are already aware of its reputation. The online virtual tour does not reflect the camp’s grim past and the sunny appearance of the photographs make it difficult to see anything other than rows of brick buildings; it is worthy to note that the preservation of the camp as it was constructed by the Nazis could be interpreted as symbolic of the rigorous and fanatic nature of order during the Nazi regime.
The Topf and Sons Place of Remembrance memorial is an interesting memorial because in its initial stages the idea for the memorial was supported by a great-grandson of a founder of the company. This type of memorial is more in line with Young’s belief that it is important to show the past while also demonstrating the evolving nature of the future in memorials. This particular memorial, opened in 2011 and located in the administrative building of the former company, uses educational initiatives and also economic activities to reflect the past and future; it also demonstrates cooperation between private individuals and also the government. I am more apt to call this type of memorial effective because it does not seek to lose the memory of the company’s involvement in the extermination of thousands to the pages of history but rather presents it in such a way that both acknowledges and seeks reconciliation with the events. Memorials which do not provoke deep thinking and reflection are not effective because they are forgotten by the visitor almost as soon as he or she leaves them behind. I believe that an important part of remembrance is an acknowledgment by the perpetrators, as well as an honoring of the victims.
* This section of the blog entry is a copy of a blog entry from July 17, 2013 titled: "The Ways of Remembrance: Memorials to the Holocaust in Germany".
* This section of the blog entry is a copy of a blog entry from July 17, 2013 titled: "The Ways of Remembrance: Memorials to the Holocaust in Germany".
Legal Repercussions and Follow-Up to the Holocaust: A Brief Overview
The Nuremberg Trials
The Nuremberg Trials were held in Nuremberg, Germany after World War II beginning on November 11, 1945 and ending on October 1, 1946. However it had been established before the war even ended in 1942, that the Allied countries were going to seek to prosecute members of the Nazi Third Reich. Twenty four men were placed on trial at the Nuremberg Trials, (Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and Heinrich Himmler had committed suicide and the International Military Tribunal decided not to try them posthumously) and only three were acquitted of the charges against them.
The International Military Tribunal or IMT which was established to preside over the Nuremberg Trials was composed of members of Allied countries. Charges against the criminals included war crimes, crimes against humanity and aggressive war. The United States Nuremberg Military Tribunal presided over twelve smaller trials known as the Subsequent Trials in which more than one hundred members of various branches and cabinets throughout the Third Reich were put on trial; these defendants were grouped based on their areas of activity: medical, legal, ethnological, economic, or political. After the Nuremberg Trials ended there would be no international court of its kind in existence until the next millennium.
Sources:
"Final Report to the Secretary of the Army on the Nuernberg War Crimes Trials Under Control Council Law No. 10." Military Legal Resources. Library of Congress, 10 July 2010. Web. 21 July 2013.
"Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression." Military Legal Resources. Library of Congress, 10 July 2010. Web. 21 July 2013.
"Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression." Military Legal Resources. Library of Congress, 10 July 2010. Web. 21 July 2013.
"The Nuremberg Trials and Their Legacy." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Web. 21 July 2013.
"Nuremberg Trials." Military Legal Resources. Library of Congress, 10 July 2010. Web. 21 July 2013.
"Nurnbuerg Military Tribunals: Indictments." Military Legal Resources. Library of Congress, 10 July 2010. Web. 21 July 2013.
"Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal." Military Legal Resources. Library of Congress, 10 July 2010. Web. 21 July 2013.
"Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10." Military Legal Resources. Library of Congress, 10 July 2010. Web. 21 July 2013.
Genocide and International Law
Genocide was not an issue officially addressed by an international governing body until the establishment of the International Criminal Court (ICC) by the Rome Statute in 1998; the ICC was not a sitting body until 2002, when sixty countries ratified its treaty. The ICC has jurisdiction over the following areas: genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. As of May 1, 2013, there are one hundred and twenty-two state members of the ICC; the United States is not one of them.
Sources:
"About the Court." International Criminal Court. Web. 21 July 2013.
"Frequently Asked Questions." International Criminal Court. Web. 21 July 2013.
"International Law: Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Web. 21 July 2013.
"Introduction to the International Criminal Court." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Web. 21 July 2013.
"Structure of the Court." International Criminal Court. Web. 21 July 2013.
Holocaust Denial
Source:
Bazyler von Oppenheim, Michael J. "Holocaust Denial Laws and Other Legislation Criminalizing Promotion of Nazism." Yad Vashem. 25 December 2006, PDF. 21 July 2013.
Appointed by Democracy: Hitler’s Legal Rise to Power
Growing up Adolf Hitler, according to multiple sources, was a not a brilliant student. He had no formal, university-level education and his greatest written work Mein Kampf was a work of fiction. Given these circumstances it seems unlikely that he Hitler would become the most popular response to the question of “which individual dominated the past millennium” (Bergen, 51). The vast majority of people would label Hitler as a brutal, sadistic and evil tyrant, whose corrupted morals lead to the deaths of millions of people during the twelve years he was in power. Such a description would suggest that his actions were illegal, that he acted outside the authority of his government; however assuming this to be true, would mean accepting falsehoods as truth. While Hitler’s actions are morally objectionable to most people, according to the German constitution adopted after World War I, Hitler’s rise to power in the early-to-mid 1930’s was legal. Article 48 of the German constitution allows for the president of the country to rule by decree during a state of emergency (Bergen, 49). In 1930 the chancellor, Heninrich Bruning, convinced the president, Paul von Hindenburg, to invoke Article 48 and rule without the approval of the Reichstag, or parliament (Bergen, 49). After a third election in November 1932 when the Nazis failed to gain widespread support in the Reichstag, von Hindenburg was convinced to appoint Hitler as chancellor of Germany; Hitler was officially sworn into this office on January 30, 1933 (Bergen, 50).
Although political scheming and bargaining played roles in Hitler’s appointment, he was ultimately appointed to his post as chancellor by legal means. Later when Hitler merged the offices of the president and chancellor, he did so while the legislative branch of the government was in operation, having convinced that governing body to pass the Enabling Act of 23 March 1933; this act allowed Hitler to put into law “any measure without approval by the Reichstag (Bergen, 53). This essentially meant that as of March 23, 1933, Hitler was acting alone despite the continued standing of the parliament; Hitler was able within one month of appointment to effectively overthrow the democratic government of Germany and he did it with that same government’s approval. Unless members of the Reichstag were willing to stand up to Hitler and the Nazis (the Social Democrats seemed to be the only party willing to do so (Bergen, 54)), there was no one to stop him: “Hitler’s political revolution was not without violence, but he established his dictatorship through means that were, at least in a narrow sense of the word, legal” (Bergen, 54).
Adolf Hitler was a dictator but according to author Doris L. Bergen, he also placed great value in public opinion; he often acted according to his own beliefs but not after he gained substantial support from the public. Anti-Semitism was something which had existed in Germany for hundreds of years and provided the basis for Hitler’s hatred of Jews. The humiliation Germans felt at the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, spurred a desire to re-arm; Hitler’s leadership during years of economic depression also lead to members of the public supporting him. Hitler would often “test the waters” as it were, before enacting his “reforms” in their entirety (Bergen, 54).
The series of laws which provided the foundation for Hitler’s actions against Jews and many other minority/ fringe groups within Germany society were the Nuremberg Laws. The Nuremberg Laws were passed in the fall of 1933 and took the form of two laws: the Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor, and the Reich Citizenship Law; the first law defined the limits of interaction between Aryans and Jews, while the second defined who was considered to be a Jew by the government (Bergen, 71). Again these laws as morally ambiguous as they seem were proposed and adopted “legally”; Hitler was a dictator but he was also shrewd and realized that in order for his goals to be realized he needed the legal backing and also the support of the populace. Once again these laws would provide the foundation for later legislation which enabled Hitler to enact his “Final Solution” during the Holocaust.
Source: Bergen, Doris. War and Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publisher Inc., 2009.
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